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Montreal Protocol

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%;">Montreal Protocol</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above description" style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ededed">The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signed</th><td class="infobox-data">16 September 1987<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Effective</th><td class="infobox-data">1 January 1989 if 11 states have ratified by then.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">Ratification by 20 states</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signatories</th><td class="infobox-data attendee plainlist">46</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ratifiers</th><td class="infobox-data plainlist">198 (all United Nations members, as well as the <a href="Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>, <a href="Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a>, the <a href="Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, <a href="Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a>, and the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Depositary</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General of the United Nations</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data hlist">Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer<a href="#cite_note-UIA-2">[2]</a> is an international <a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">treaty</a> designed to protect the <a href="Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a> by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for <a href="Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone several amendments and adjustments, with revisions agreed to in 1990 (<a href="London" title="London">London</a>), 1992 (<a href="Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>), 1995 (<a href="Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>), 1997 (<a href="Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>), 1999 (<a href="Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>), 2007 (Montreal), 2016 (<a href="Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>) and 2018 (<a href="Quito" title="Quito">Quito</a>).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole over <a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> is slowly recovering.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040 (across much of the world) and 2066 (over Antarctica).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former <a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) Secretary-General <a href="Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> stated that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the <a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a> has failed to do so.<a href="#cite_note-cass-13">[13]</a> In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.<a href="#cite_note-par-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-RG-15">[15]</a>

The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>),<a href="#cite_note-ozone.unep.org-16">[16]</a> making it the <a href="List_of_treaties_by_number_of_parties" title="List of treaties by number of parties">first universally ratified treaty</a> in United Nations history.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terms_and_purposes">Terms and purposes</h2></div>

The treaty<a href="#cite_note-18">[Notes 1]</a> is structured around several groups of <a href="Halogenated_hydrocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Halogenated hydrocarbon">halogenated hydrocarbons</a> that lead to the catalytic destruction of stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either <a href="Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> or <a href="Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a> (substances containing only <a href="Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> do not harm the ozone layer, although they can be strong greenhouse gases). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including <a href="Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> (N2O). For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a>

For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be reduced and eventually eliminated. This includes a 10-year phase-out for developing countries<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> identified in Article 5 of the treaty.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chlorofluorocarbons_(CFCs)_Phase-out_Management_Plan">Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan</h3></div>

The purpose of the treaty is that each signatory states:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge

Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries

shall accept a series of stepped limits on <a href="Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFC</a> use and production, including:

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<ul><li>from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in 1986;</li>

<li>from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986.</li>

<li>from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero.</li></ul>

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There was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.) and some chemicals were given individual attention (<a href="Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">Carbon tetrachloride</a>; <a href="1%2C1%2C1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">1,1,1-trichloroethane</a>). The phasing-out of the less damaging <a href="HCFC" class="mw-redirect" title="HCFC">HCFCs</a> only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030.

There were a few exceptions for "essential uses" where no acceptable substitutes were initially found (for example, metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were previously exempt) or <a href="Halomethane" title="Halomethane">Halon</a> fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).

The substances in Group I of Annex A are:

The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled <a href="Scientific_assessment_of_ozone_depletion" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific assessment of ozone depletion">Scientific assessment of ozone depletion</a>, by the Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP).<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a>

In 1990 a Technology and Economic Assessment Panel was also established as the technology and economics advisory body to the Montreal Protocol Parties.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides, at the request of Parties, technical information related to the alternative technologies that have been investigated and employed to make it possible to virtually eliminate use of Ozone Depleting Substances (such as CFCs and Halons), that harm the ozone layer. The TEAP is also tasked by the Parties every year to assess and evaluate various technical issues including evaluating nominations for essential use exemptions for CFCs and halons, and nominations for critical use exemptions for methyl bromide. TEAP's annual reports are a basis for the Parties' informed decision-making.

Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrochlorofluorocarbons_(HCFCs)_Phase-out_Management_Plan_(HPMP)">Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)</h3></div>

Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs for developing countries. For developed countries, reduction of HCFC consumption and production began in 2004 and 2010, respectively, with 100% reduction set for 2020. Developing countries agreed to start reducing its consumption and production of HCFCs by 2015, with 100% reduction set for 2030.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a>

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, commonly known as HCFCs, are a group of human-made compounds containing hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are not found anywhere in nature. HCFC production began to take off after countries agreed to phase out the use of CFCs in the 1980s, which were found to be destroying the ozone layer. Like CFCs, HCFCs are used for refrigeration, aerosol propellants, foam manufacture and air conditioning. Unlike the CFCs, however, most HCFCs are broken down in the lowest part of the atmosphere and pose a much smaller risk to the ozone layer. Nevertheless, HCFCs are very potent <a href="Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>, despite their very low atmospheric concentrations, measured in parts per trillion (million million).

The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as <a href="Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">refrigerants</a>, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of <a href="Ozone_depletion_potential" title="Ozone depletion potential">ozone depletion potential</a> (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6–1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01–0.5). In terms of <a href="Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680–10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76–2,270). <a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrofluorocarbons_(HFCs)">Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)</h3></div>

On 1 January 2019, the <a href="Kigali_Amendment" title="Kigali Amendment">Kigali Amendment</a> to the Montreal Protocol came into force.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Under the Kigali Amendment countries promised to reduce the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by more than 80% over the next 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> By 27 December 2018, 65 countries had ratified the Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-standardmedia_Msuya_20190102-30">[29]</a> As of 31 October 2024, 160 states<a href="#cite_note-UNTC-31">[30]</a> and the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> have ratified the Amendment.

Produced mostly in developed countries, <a href="Organofluorine_chemistry#Hydrofluorocarbons" title="Organofluorine chemistry">hydrofluorocarbons</a> (HFCs) replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine. They are, however, greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> In 2009, a study calculated that a fast phasedown of high-GWP HFCs could potentially prevent the equivalent of up to 8.8 Gt CO2-eq per year in emissions by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> A proposed phasedown of HFCs was hence projected to avoid up to 0.5C of warming by 2100 under the high-HFC growth scenario, and up to 0.35C under the low-HFC growth scenario.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> Recognizing the opportunity presented for fast and effective phasing down of HFCs through the Montreal Protocol, starting in 2009 the <a href="Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a> proposed an amendment to phase down high-GWP HFCs,<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> with the U.S., Canada, and Mexico following with a similar proposal in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a>

After seven years of negotiations, in October 2016 at the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in <a href="Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali Amendment whereby the Parties agreed to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> The amendment to the Montreal Protocol commits the signatory parties to reduce their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent from the annual average value in the period from 2011 to 2013. A group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045. India and some other developing countries – Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait – will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024-26 by the year 2047.

On 17 November 2017, ahead of the 29th Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol, Sweden became the 20th Party to ratify the Kigali Amendment, pushing the Amendment over its ratification threshold ensuring that the Amendment would enter into force 1 January 2019.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

In the 1970s, the chemists <a href="Frank_Sherwood_Rowland" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Sherwood Rowland">Frank Sherwood Rowland</a> and <a href="Mario_Molina" title="Mario Molina">Mario Molina</a>, who were then at the <a href="University_of_California%2C_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a>, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the <a href="Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by <a href="Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> releasing a <a href="Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by <a href="Paul_J._Crutzen" title="Paul J. Crutzen">Paul J. Crutzen</a> and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including <a href="Ralph_Cicerone" title="Ralph Cicerone">Ralph Cicerone</a>, <a href="Richard_Stolarski" title="Richard Stolarski">Richard Stolarski</a>, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 <a href="Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a> for their work on this problem.

The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.

The Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of <a href="DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". <a href="Robert_Abplanalp" title="Robert Abplanalp">Robert Abplanalp</a>, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)

After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a

hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. <a href="United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-NAS1976-41">[40]</a> NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.

In 1982, representatives from 24 countries met in Stockholm, Sweden to decide on a "Global Framework Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer." The following year, a group of countries, including the United States, Canada, the Nordic Countries, and Switzerland, proposed a worldwide ban on "nonessential" uses of CFCs in spray cans.<a href="#cite_note-Benedick_1989_43–50-42">[41]</a>

Then, in 1985, <a href="British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a> scientists <a href="Joe_Farman" title="Joe Farman">Joe Farman</a>, <a href="Brian_G._Gardiner_(meteorologist)" title="Brian G. Gardiner (meteorologist)">Brian Gardiner</a> and <a href="Jon_Shanklin" title="Jon Shanklin">Jon Shanklin</a> published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above <a href="Halley_Bay" title="Halley Bay">Halley Bay</a> near the <a href="South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. This unforeseen phenomenon in the Antarctic, as well as NASA's scientific images of the ozone hole played an important role in the Montreal Protocol negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colorful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal, Canada to take the issue seriously.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a>

Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the <a href="Vienna_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Ozone_Layer" title="Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer">Vienna Convention</a>, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> After the discovery of the ozone hole

by SAGE 2 it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal, Canada. <a href="Mostafa_Kamal_Tolba" title="Mostafa Kamal Tolba">Mostafa Kamal Tolba</a>, the head of the <a href="United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">UNEP</a> at the time, was considered the "father of the Montreal Protocol" for his role in bringing the nations together for an agreement.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a>

In 1986, an assessment spearheaded by NASA and sponsored by the United Nationals Environment Program, the <a href="World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a>, and various other organizations concluded that continued CFC emissions at the 1980 rate would "reduce global average ozone by about 9 percent by the latter half of the century." Based on these figures, the U.S. <a href="United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> estimated that in the United States alone there could be "over 150 million new cases of skin cancer among people currently alive and born by the year 2075, resulting in over 3 million deaths."<a href="#cite_note-Benedick_1989_43–50-42">[41]</a>

The CFC industry continued pushing back against regulation as late as 1986, when the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by <a href="DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a>) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation."<a href="#cite_note-Doyle1991-47">[46]</a> And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change..."<a href="#cite_note-Greenpeace1997-48">[47]</a>

In an unexpected policy change, however, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy issued a statement in 1986 declaring that "large future increases...in CFCs...would be unacceptable to future generations," and that it would be "inconsistent with [industry] goals...to ignore the potential for risk to future generations." Three months before the protocol negotiations began, U.S. industry announced its support for new international controls on CFCs.<a href="#cite_note-Benedick_1989_43–50-42">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multilateral_Fund">Multilateral Fund</h2></div>

The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).

It embodies the principle agreed at the <a href="Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">United Nations Conference on Environment and Development</a> in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.

The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the executive committee:<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a>

<ul><li><a href="United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP), through its <a href="UNEP_OzonAction" title="UNEP OzonAction">OzonAction Programme</a>.</li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a> (UNDP).</li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization" title="United Nations Industrial Development Organization">United Nations Industrial Development Organization</a> (UNIDO).</li>

<li><a href="World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>.</li></ul>

Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities.

The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parties">Parties</h2></div>

As of October 2022, all Member States of the United Nations, the <a href="Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>, <a href="Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a>, the <a href="Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, the <a href="State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Palestine">State of Palestine</a> as well as the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below),<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> with the State of Palestine being the last party to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 198. 197 of those parties (with the exception of the State of Palestine) have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments.<a href="#cite_note-ozone.unep.org-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect">Effect</h2></div>

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because of many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years,<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> However, a more recent study seems to point to a relative increase in CFCs due to an unknown source.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a>

Reported in 1997, significant production of CFCs occurred in Russia for sale on the black market to the EU throughout the 90s. Related US production and consumption was enabled by fraudulent reporting due to poor enforcement mechanisms. Similar illegal markets for CFCs were detected in Taiwan, Korea, and Hong Kong.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a>

The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a>

However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, contribute to <a href="Anthropogenic_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic global warming">anthropogenic global warming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a>

Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_detections_of_non-compliance">Regional detections of non-compliance</h3></div>

In 2018, scientists monitoring the atmosphere following the 2010 phaseout date reported evidence of continuing industrial production of CFC-11, likely in eastern Asia, with detrimental global effects on the ozone layer.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> A monitoring study detected fresh atmospheric releases of carbon tetrachloride from China's <a href="Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> province, beginning sometime after 2012, and accounting for a large part of emissions exceeding global estimates under the Montreal Protocol.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="25th_anniversary_celebrations">25th anniversary celebrations</h2></div>

The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, the Montreal Protocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicize its considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a>

Among its accomplishments are:

<ul><li>The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge;</li>

<li>the first to embrace the "precautionary principle" in its design for science-based policymaking;</li>

<li>the first treaty where independent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reported directly to parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect;</li>

<li>the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing a multilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemical phase-out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and,</li>

<li>the first treaty with a financial mechanism managed democratically by an executive board with equal representation by developed and developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></li></ul>

Within 25 years of signing, parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones. Significantly, the world has phased-out 98% of the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide; every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first global regime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013. UNEP received accolades for achieving global consensus that "demonstrates the world’s commitment to ozone protection, and more broadly, to global environmental protection".<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Action_for_Climate_Empowerment" title="Action for Climate Empowerment">Action for Climate Empowerment</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_footprint#Direct_carbon_emissions_(Scope_1)" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Copenhagen_Accord" title="Copenhagen Accord">Copenhagen Accord</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_capacity_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Net capacity factor">Net capacity factor</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Day_for_the_Preservation_of_the_Ozone_Layer" title="International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer">International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Section_608" title="Section 608">Section 608</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Conference_(1985)" title="Vienna Conference (1985)">Vienna Conference (1985)</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-out_of_gas_boilers" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase-out of gas boilers">Phase-out of gas boilers</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_bans" title="Plastic bans">Plastic bans</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The full terms of the Montreal Protocol are available from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.1_The_Montreal_Protocol/">United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Ozone Secretariat</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080703062032/http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.1_The_Montreal_Protocol/">Archived</a> 3 July 2008 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Updating Ozone Calculations and Emissions Profiles for Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework Model <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/effects/AHEF_2015_Update_Report-FINAL_508.pdf">http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/effects/AHEF_2015_Update_Report-FINAL_508.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150417175954/http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/effects/AHEF_2015_Update_Report-FINAL_508.pdf">Archived</a> 17 April 2015 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Rishav Goyal, Matthew H England, Alex Sen Gupta, and Martin Jucker. "Reduction in surface climate change achieved by the 1987 Montreal Protocol" Environmental Research Letters 2019 14 (12) 124041; <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fab4874">10.1088/1748-9326/ab4874</a>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110421074012/http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/other_gases.html">"EIA – Emissions of the Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2005"</a>. eia.doe.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/other_gases.html">the original</a> on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2010.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106 (49) 20616-20621; <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0902568106">10.1073/pnas.0902568106</a>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." Global Environmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330–340; <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2008.03.003">10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003</a>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> UNEP press release, 2008 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=593&ArticleID=6250&l=en&t=long">http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=593&ArticleID=6250&l=en&t=long</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101116011343/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=593&ArticleID=6250&l=en&t=long">Archived</a> 16 November 2010 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/17/611984631/banned-ozone-depleting-chemical-is-still-being-produced-somewhere-scientists-say">"Banned Ozone-Depleting Chemical Is Still Being Produced Somewhere, Scientists Say"</a>. NPR. 17 May 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStephen_A._Montzka2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stephen A. Montzka; et al. (17 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/files/155735096/318003_2_merged_1521470846.pdf">"An unexpected and persistent increase in global emissions of ozone-depleting CFC-11"</a> (PDF). Nature. 557 (7705): 413–417. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.557..413M">2018Natur.557..413M</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0106-2">10.1038/s41586-018-0106-2</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2Ffd5eaf00-34b1-4689-9f23-410a54182b61">1983/fd5eaf00-34b1-4689-9f23-410a54182b61</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769666">29769666</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21705434">21705434</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFM._F._Lunt2018" class="citation journal cs1">M. F. Lunt; et al. (28 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7526663">"Continued Emissions of the Ozone-Depleting Substance Carbon Tetrachloride From Eastern Asia"</a>. Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (20): 11, 423–11, 430. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018GeoRL..4511423L">2018GeoRL..4511423L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2018GL079500">10.1029/2018GL079500</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7526663">7526663</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33005064">33005064</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120625195246/http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/ozone_day_details.php">"Ozone Secretariat 25th Anniversary web page"</a>. Ozone.unep.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/ozone_day_details.php">the original</a> on 25 June 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2012.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Canan, Penelope and Nancy Reichman (2013), "The Montreal Protocol" in J. Britt Holbrook (Chief Editor) Ethics, Science, Technology, and Engineering: An International Resource, 2nd Edition, Thompson Learning.

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<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> ozone.unep.org

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</ol></div></div>

This article incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/copyright-and-contributors/">public domain material</a> from <cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2003.zip">(Archived 2003 edition.)</a>(referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Stephen_O._Andersen" title="Stephen O. Andersen">Andersen, S. O</a>. and K. M. Sarma. (2002). Protecting the Ozone Layer: the United Nations History, Earthscan Press. London. </li>

<li><a href="Stephen_O._Andersen" title="Stephen O. Andersen">Andersen, S. O</a>., K. M. Sarma and K. N. Taddonio. (2007). Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change. Earthscan Press, London. </li>

<li>Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-674-65001-8</bdi> (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)</li>

<li>Brodeur, Paul (1986). "Annals of Chemistry: In the Face of Doubt." The New Yorker, 9 June 1986, pp. 70–87.</li>

<li>Chasek, Pam, David Downie, and J.W. Brown (2013). Global Environmental Politics, 6th ed., Boulder: Westview Press. </li>

<li>Dotto, Lydia and Harold Schiff (1978). The Ozone War. New York: <a href="Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday (publisher)</a>. </li>

<li>Downie, David (1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection." Political Science (NZ) 45(2): (December): 186–197.</li>

<li>Downie, David (1995). "Road Map or False Trail: Evaluating the Precedence of the Ozone Regime as Model and Strategy for Global Climate Change," International Environmental Affairs, 7(4):321–345 (Fall 1995).</li>

<li>Downie, David (1999). "The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Politics as a Common Pool Resource Problem", in J. Barkin and G. Shambaugh (eds.) Anarchy and the Environment: The International Relations of Common Pool Resources. Albany: State University of New York Press. </li>

<li><a href="David_L._Downie" title="David L. Downie">David L. Downie</a> (2012). "The Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol and Global Policy to Protect Stratospheric Ozone", in P. Wexler et al. (eds.) Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. </li>

<li>Downie, David (2013) "Stratospheric Ozone Depletion." The Routledge Handbook of Global Environmental Politics. New York: Routledge. </li>

<li>Farman, J.C., B.G. Gardiner, and J.D. Shanklin (1985). "Large Losses of Total Ozone in Antarctica Reveal Seasonal ClO x/<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">

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</style>NOx Interaction." Nature 315: 207–210, 16 May 1985.</li>

<li>Gareau, Brian J. (2013). From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Environmental Protection in the Montreal Protocol. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0300175264</bdi></li>

<li>Grundmann, Reiner. (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone, London: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-415-22423-3</bdi></li>

<li>Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-231-08137-5</bdi></li>

<li>Molina, Mario and F. Sherwood Rowland (1974). "Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine Atomic Catalyzed Destruction of Ozone." Nature 249: 810–812, 28 June 1974.</li>

<li>Morissette, P.M. (1989). "The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion." Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820.</li>

<li>Parson, Edward (2003). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. </li>

<li>Roan, Sharon (1989). Ozone Crisis: The 15-Year Evolution of a Sudden Global Emergency. New York, John Wiley and Sons </li>

<li>United Nations Environmental Programme. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151121215638/http://new.unep.org/ozonaction/Portals/105/documents/publications/green-economy-report.pdf">The Montreal Protocol and The Green Economy</a>.</li>

<li>Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/104/12/4814.full">The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting the Climate</a>. Proc. of the Natl. Acad. Of Sci., 104(12), 4814–4819, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0610328104">10.1073/pnas.0610328104</a>.</li>

<li>Velders, G. J. M., D. W. Fahey, J. S Daniel, M. McFarland, and S. O. Andersen. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/06/19/0902817106.full.pdf+html?with-ds=yes">The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing</a>. Proc. of the Natl. Acad. Of Sci., 106(27), <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0902817106">10.1073/pnas.0902817106</a>.</li>

<li>Velders, G. J. M., A. R. Ravishankara, M. K. Miller, M. J. Molina, J. Alcamo, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, S. A. Montzka, and S. Reimann. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1216414">Preserving Montreal Protocol Climate Benefits by Limiting HFCs</a>. Science, 335(6071), 922–923, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1216414">10.1126/science.1216414</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.multilateralfund.org/">Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602153542/http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php">The Montreal Protocol</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140812203449/http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/vienna_convention.php">The Vienna Convention</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130419060849/http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/Treaties/treaties_decisions-hb.php?art_id=59,60,61,62,63">Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Controlled Under the Montreal Protocol</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011123227/http://www.epa.gov/ozone/strathome.html">U.S. EPA Ozone Layer Protection Information Home Page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/montrealprotocolwhoswho/">The Montreal Protocol Who's Who</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531033513/http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/montrealprotocolwhoswho/">Archived</a> 31 May 2010 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919203230/http://www.ncseonline.org/cfc-ozone-puzzle-environmental-science-global-arena-2000-chafee-memorial-lecture">[1]</a> by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/ozone/2002/qandas16.pdf">Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? </a>(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cei.org/gencon/025,01184.cfm">Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090910000608/http://cei.org/gencon/025,01184.cfm">Archived</a> 10 September 2009 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051213041936/http://www.cei.org/dyn/view_Expert.cfm?Expert=6">Ben Lieberman</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia-international.org/media?cat1=196&cat2=236">EIA reports</a>: Reports on illegal trade and solutions.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/vcpol/vcpol.html">Introductory note by Edith Brown Weiss, procedural history note and audiovisual material</a> on the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html">Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.green-cooling-initiative.org/">Green Cooling Initiative</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.green-cooling-initiative.org/">Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Ronald_Reagan766" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">40th</a> <a href="President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1981–1989)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_governors_of_California" title="List of governors of California">33rd</a> <a href="Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">Governor of California</a> (1967–1975)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Birthplace_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Birthplace of Ronald Reagan">Birthplace</a></li>

<li><a href="H._C._Pitney_Variety_Store_Building" title="H. C. Pitney Variety Store Building">Pitney Store</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Boyhood_Home" title="Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home">Boyhood home</a></li>

<li><a href="General_Electric_Showcase_House" title="General Electric Showcase House">General Electric Showcase House</a></li>

<li><a href="Rancho_del_Cielo" title="Rancho del Cielo">Rancho del Cielo</a></li>

<li><a href="668_St._Cloud_Road" title="668 St. Cloud Road">668 St. Cloud Road</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_filmography" title="Ronald Reagan filmography">Filmography</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_positions_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Political positions of Ronald Reagan">Political positions</a></li>

<li><a href="Governorship_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Governorship of Ronald Reagan">Governorship of California</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Presidential_Library" title="Ronald Reagan Presidential Library">Presidential Library and Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a></li>

<li><a href="Official_White_House_portraits_of_Nancy_and_Ronald_Reagan" title="Official White House portraits of Nancy and Ronald Reagan">Official White House portraits</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_and_Nancy_Reagan's_1989_trip_to_Japan" title="Ronald and Nancy Reagan's 1989 trip to Japan">1989 trip to Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Death_and_state_funeral_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan">Death and state funeral</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sergeant_York_(horse)" title="Sergeant York (horse)">Riderless horse</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Presidential_transition_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidential transition of Ronald Reagan">Transition</a></li>

<li><a href="First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">First inauguration</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan">Second inauguration</a></li>

<li><a href="Domestic_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Domestic policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Economic policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981" title="Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981">Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981</a></li>

<li><a href="Tax_Reform_Act_of_1986" title="Tax Reform Act of 1986">Tax Reform Act of 1986</a></li>

<li><a href="Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan">Assassination attempt</a></li>

<li><a href="Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Foreign policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union summits</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">Geneva</a></li>

<li><a href="Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Summit_(1987)" title="Washington Summit (1987)">Washington</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty" title="Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty">INF Treaty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Summit_(1988)" title="Moscow Summit (1988)">Moscow</a></li>

<li><a href="Governors_Island_Summit" title="Governors Island Summit">Governors Island</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Constructive_engagement" title="Constructive engagement">Constructive engagement</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li>

<li><a href="Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li>

<li><a href="1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya" title="1986 United States bombing of Libya">Libya bombing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Cannabis policy</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_international_presidential_trips_made_by_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of international presidential trips made by Ronald Reagan">International trips</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Grace_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="The Grace Commission">The Grace Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Cabinet</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of federal judges appointed by Ronald Reagan">Judicial appointments</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Ronald Reagan judicial appointment controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Reagan_administration_scandals" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration scandals">Administration scandals</a></li>

<li>"<a href="We_begin_bombing_in_five_minutes" title="We begin bombing in five minutes">We begin bombing in five minutes</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Efforts_to_impeach_Ronald_Reagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Efforts to impeach Ronald Reagan">Impeachment efforts</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Executive_orders" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Author:Ronald Wilson Reagan/Executive orders">Executive orders</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Author:Ronald Wilson Reagan/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential proclamations</a></li>

<li><a href="Presidential_transition_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidential transition of George H. W. Bush">Bush transition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Speeches_and_debates_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan">Speeches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Speaks_Out_Against_Socialized_Medicine" title="Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine">Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine</a> (1961)</li>

<li><a href="A_Time_for_Choosing" title="A Time for Choosing">"A Time for Choosing"</a> (1964)</li>

<li><a href="Reagan's_Neshoba_County_Fair_%22states'_rights%22_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan's Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech">Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech</a> (1980)</li>

<li><a href="First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">First inaugural address</a> (1981)</li>

<li><a href="February_1981_Ronald_Reagan_speech_to_a_joint_session_of_Congress" title="February 1981 Ronald Reagan speech to a joint session of Congress">Joint session of Congress</a> (1981)</li>

<li><a href="Ash_heap_of_history" title="Ash heap of history">"Ash heap of history"</a> (1982)</li>

<li><a href="Evil_Empire_speech" title="Evil Empire speech">"Evil empire"</a> (1983)</li>

<li><a href="Second_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan">Second inaugural address</a> (1985)</li>

<li><a href="State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bibliography_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Bibliography of Ronald Reagan">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="An_American_Life" title="An American Life">An American Life</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Reagan_Diaries" title="The Reagan Diaries">The Reagan Diaries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Electoral_history_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Electoral history of Ronald Reagan">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1966_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1966 California gubernatorial election">1966 California gubernatorial election</a>

<ul><li><a href="The_Eleventh_Commandment_(Ronald_Reagan)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Eleventh Commandment (Ronald Reagan)">11th commandment</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="1970_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1970 California gubernatorial election">1970 California gubernatorial election</a></li>

<li><a href="1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">Republican presidential primaries (1968</a></li>

<li><a href="1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention (1968</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_1976_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1976 presidential campaign">1976 presidential campaign</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign">1980 presidential campaign</a>

<ul><li><a href="There_you_go_again" title="There you go again">"There you go again"</a></li>

<li><a href="Make_America_Great_Again" title="Make America Great Again">"Let's make America great again"</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_1984_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign">1984 presidential campaign</a>

<ul><li><a href="Morning_in_America" title="Morning in America">"Morning in America"</a></li>

<li><a href="Bear_in_the_woods" title="Bear in the woods">"Bear in the woods"</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">United States presidential election (1976</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cultural_depictions_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan">Cultural depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bibliography_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Bibliography of Ronald Reagan">Bibliography</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_in_music" title="Ronald Reagan in music">In music</a>

<ul><li><a href="Let_Them_Eat_Jellybeans!" title="Let Them Eat Jellybeans!">Let Them Eat Jellybeans!</a> (1981)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li>

<li><a href="Rap_Master_Ronnie" title="Rap Master Ronnie">Rap Master Ronnie</a></li>

<li><a href="Ed_the_Happy_Clown" title="Ed the Happy Clown">Ed the Happy Clown</a> (1983 comic series)</li>

<li><a href="Spitting_Image" title="Spitting Image">Spitting Image (TV series)</a> (1984)</li>

<li><a href="A_Mind_Forever_Voyaging" title="A Mind Forever Voyaging">A Mind Forever Voyaging</a> (1985 game)</li>

<li><a href="The_Dark_Knight_Returns" title="The Dark Knight Returns">The Dark Knight Returns</a> (1986)

<ul><li><a href="Batman%3A_The_Dark_Knight_Returns_(film)" title="Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (film)">film adaptation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pizza_Man_(1991_film)" title="Pizza Man (1991 film)">Pizza Man</a> (1991 film)</li>

<li><a href="The_Day_Reagan_Was_Shot" title="The Day Reagan Was Shot">The Day Reagan Was Shot</a> (2001 film)</li>

<li><a href="Reagan's_War" title="Reagan's War">Reagan's War</a> (2002 book)</li>

<li><a href="The_Reagans" title="The Reagans">The Reagans</a> (2003 film)</li>

<li><a href="Reagan_(2011_film)" title="Reagan (2011 film)">Reagan</a> (2011 documentary)</li>

<li><a href="The_Butler" title="The Butler">The Butler</a> (2013 film)</li>

<li><a href="Killing_Reagan" title="Killing Reagan">Killing Reagan</a> (2015 book)</li>

<li><a href="Killing_Reagan_(film)" title="Killing Reagan (film)">Killing Reagan</a> (2016 film)</li>

<li><a href="Call_of_Duty%3A_Black_Ops_Cold_War" title="Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War">Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War</a> (2020 game)</li>

<li><a href="The_Reagans_(2020_miniseries)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Reagans (2020 miniseries)">The Reagans</a> (2020 miniseries)</li>

<li><a href="Reagan_(2024_film)" title="Reagan (2024 film)">Reagan</a> (2024 film)</li>

<li><a href="Reykjavik_(film)" title="Reykjavik (film)">Reykjavik</a> (TBA)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Statue_of_Ronald_Reagan_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Ronald Reagan (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol statue</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_things_named_after_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of things named after Ronald Reagan">Namesakes and memorials</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Day" title="Ronald Reagan Day">Ronald Reagan Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Lincoln_Dinner" title="Lincoln Dinner">Reagan Day Dinner</a></li>

<li><a href="USS_Ronald_Reagan" title="USS Ronald Reagan">USS Ronald Reagan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Building_and_International_Trade_Center" title="Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center">Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Washington_National_Airport" title="Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport">Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport</a></li>

<li><a href="Statue_of_Ronald_Reagan_(Arlington%2C_Virginia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statue of Ronald Reagan (Arlington, Virginia)">Virginia statue</a></li>

<li><a href="Statue_of_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Budapest" title="Statue of Ronald Reagan, Budapest">Budapest statue</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Reagan_Monument_(Warsaw)" title="Ronald Reagan Monument (Warsaw)">Ronald Reagan Monument, Warshaw</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jane_Wyman" title="Jane Wyman">Jane Wyman</a> (first wife)</li>

<li><a href="Nancy_Reagan" title="Nancy Reagan">Nancy Reagan</a> (second wife)</li>

<li><a href="Maureen_Reagan" title="Maureen Reagan">Maureen Reagan</a> (daughter)</li>

<li><a href="Michael_Reagan" title="Michael Reagan">Michael Reagan</a> (adopted son)</li>

<li><a href="Patti_Davis" title="Patti Davis">Patti Davis</a> (daughter)</li>

<li><a href="Ron_Reagan" title="Ron Reagan">Ron Reagan</a> (son)</li>

<li><a href="Jack_Reagan" title="Jack Reagan">Jack Reagan</a> (father)</li>

<li><a href="Nelle_Wilson_Reagan" title="Nelle Wilson Reagan">Nelle Wilson Reagan</a> (mother)</li>

<li><a href="Neil_Reagan" title="Neil Reagan">Neil Reagan</a> (brother)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="What_would_Reagan_do%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What would Reagan do?">"What would Reagan do?"</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">← Jimmy Carter</a></li>

<li><a href="George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush →</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pollution1274" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div id="Pollution1274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><a href="History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li>

<li><a href="Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li>

<li><a href="Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Particulates" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulates">Particulates</a>

<ul><li><a href="Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li>

<li><a href="Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_poverty_and_cooking" title="Energy poverty and cooking">Polluting cooking fuels</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li>

<li><a href="Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a>

<ul><li><a href="Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li>

<li><a href="Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li>

<li><a href="Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a>

<li><a href="Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Industrial</li>

<li>Military</li>

<li>Abstract</li>

<li><a href="Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li>

<li><a href="Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li>

<li><a href="Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li>

<li><a href="Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li>

<li><a href="Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li>

<li><a href="Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li>

<li><a href="Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li>

<li><a href="Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a>

<ul><li><a href="Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li>

<li><a href="Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li>

<li><a href="Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li>

<li><a href="Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li>

<li><a href="War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li>

<li><a href="Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li>

<li><a href="Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li>

<li><a href="Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li>

<li><a href="Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li>

<li><a href="Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a>

<ul><li><a href="Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li>

<li><a href="Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li>

<li><a href="Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a>

<ul><li><a href="Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li>

<li><a href="Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li>

<li><a href="Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li>

<li><a href="Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li>

<li><a href="Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li>

<li><a href="Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div> Categories (by country) <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> WikiProject Environment WikiProject Ecology <a href="Portal%3AEnvironment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a> <a href="Portal%3AEcology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Montreal_Protocol&oldid=1303182668">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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